Aristotle's "Politics" (starting from the parts to study the whole) discusses the purpose and origin of the country-city-state, the reasons for its emergence, decline and preservation, the classification, change, maintenance and ideals of political systems City-state construction and citizen education. He believes that people are born political animals. People participate in various levels of communism for the pursuit of the perfect life. Ethics studies the knowledge of personal perfection, and the perfection of personal life is inseparable from the city-state. Political science is higher than ethics, and ethics belongs to political science. The second volume explains the gains and losses of various political systems, and proposes an ideal political system model-a political system in which the middle class occupies the main body. In the 4th century BC, the Greek city-states declined and the society was in turmoil. There were conflicts between nobles and commoners, slaves and slave owners. He believes that social unrest and chaos stem from injustice (unfairness and inequality). Inequality among citizens who should be equal leads to dissatisfaction and struggle. think. An oligarchy of the rich oppresses the poor. To reconcile contradictions, the appropriate political theory is the golden mean. Find a poor man who takes power and squeezes out the rich. A powerful "middle class". He doesn't think the middle class will compete less like the poor and rich. It advocates achieving perfection and harmony in city-state life through citizen education and training. Three ways: --- Make people become Shining. Nature === Habit === Reason He believes that in the best city-state, the goodness of the citizens and the goodness of the city-state are consistent. It is believed that the legislators in the best city-states can cultivate or train the virtues of citizens through legislation and education, so that the three components of the citizens' souls can be harmonious and consistent, and the most important thing is to educate the children of the city-state. 1. Family---the starting point of a city-state. He believes that people establish the most noble and authoritative political community or political community for the purpose of pursuing the best. Study the city-state through its elements. People form families because life demands that multiple families unite to form villages in order to obtain more than the necessities of life. Villages grew larger and larger, forming city-states. (natural formation) The city-state is inherently superior to the family and the individual. Emphasis on "virtue". People are born with virtue. If they do not have virtue for their own purposes, they will become the most evil and cruel animals, full of lust and greed. 1. Family elements He believes that people who by nature do not belong to themselves but belong to others are born slaves and belong to others. Some people are born to rule others, and some are born to rule others. The better the governed, the better the effect of the rule. The soul rules the body despotically, the intellect rules the desires legally or monarchically. He said: "Those who are of lower status are born slaves, and it is better for them to be slaves, just as all low people should accept the rule of their masters." There is no big difference between using slaves and using domestic animals, because slaves and domestic animals They all use their bodies to provide their master’s daily necessities. Some are born free and some are born slaves. A statute is an agreement whereby things captured in war are believed to belong to the victor. (Condemn by many laws) - If one person is powerful and always full of cruelty, another person will be his slave and vassal. Aristotle considered the essence of this argument to be a "matter of justice." He accepts that some people are slaves everywhere, and some people are not noble anywhere. The rule of the family is despotic, and the government of freemen and equals is governed by law. When the master-slave relationship is natural, they are friends and have the same interests. 2. Household management and wealth acquisition. The masterpieces of nature - the different lifestyles of humans and animals, the differences between nomads, and the plundering of food. 3. The art of getting rich. The monarch has a superior nature, and his rule over his subjects is the relationship between elders and children and the relationship between father and son. 4. The political characteristics of several special groups The virtues of different people are qualitatively different and their internal structures are different. He believes that "the general view that virtue means the goodness of the soul or the rightness of behavior is unavailable, but the people who specifically express various virtues are relatively correct." ---p18 1. The ultimate goodness of a city-state does not lie in Citizens own everything and think that the internal consistency of the Socratic city-state is not good. He believes that the essence of a city-state lies in diversity, not uniformity. Consistency leads to self-denial and destruction. "Differences and differences among citizens are necessary to maintain the harmony and order of the city-state." 2. It is unrealistic for citizens to have everything. Contrary to the views of Plato and Socrates, it focuses on the negative effects of everything. 3. Property should be private and public. Discuss the distribution of property in the city-state. Personally, I feel that he emphasizes diversity and refutes Socrates with a high degree of consistency. He believes that both families and city-states have a certain internal consistency, but consistency is limited, and city-states are polyhedrons. 4. The shortcomings of the political system advocated in "Law" (Law) believes that the political system is between the civilian government and the oligarchic government. The author believes that this is the worst form of government. The "Law" advocated the appointment of officials by drawing lots, and those who combined could only force the rich to attend meetings and ignore other citizens. The upper class rich have an advantage. It is believed that the system of equal distribution of property cannot work against thieves who steal the country.

He believes that desire is endless, and most people do it for their own desires or. Therefore, a wiser approach is to teach those at the top to be content through education, while at the same time distributing fairness to the humble to eliminate their dissatisfaction. ---p32 5. Hippodamus's political system design and shortcomings 6. Spartan political system Slaves were dissatisfied and had management problems. Do whatever you want with your arrogance. To murder the master. Women indulge. Lustful and extravagant. This led to Sparta becoming "a country that values ​​wealth and is dominated by women." --- a lustful and warlike country. Property system, huge gap between rich and poor, citizen birth, censorship system - prosecutors are from the common people, elected among the common people, people who are hungry and cold may abuse their power. But it also gave ordinary poor people a share of power. appeased the common people. Presbyterianism---cannot keep up with the times, bribery and canvassing arise. Monarchy - hereditary system - meal system, which the extremely poor cannot afford. (Intended for civilians) On the contrary, citizenship will be revoked---p38 Legal system, financial and taxation system---the treasury will be in short supply, foreign conquests will occur, and it will pose a threat to the city-state. 7. Cretan government: Citizens do not need to pay for meals, and income comes from public sources. Frugality, separation of men and women, encouragement of men to keep each other company, and birth control. They like to form cliques. 8. Carthage's political system - more inclined to the civilian system, and sometimes to the oligarchic system. It is very similar to the first two. Some people think it is the best one in history. There has been no major turmoil, no tyrants, and it has always been very stable. The monarchy system is more excellent. Sages are selected from various prestigious families according to the opinions of the citizens. There is no restriction of simply seniority being respected. He believed that such a government system from aristocracy to oligarchy was wrong, in time because of the importance of wealth issues, and it was disgraceful to allow money to buy high-ranking administrators like kings and generals. Acknowledge that == wealth is more important than virtue. It will lead to profit-seeking and job convenience. I don’t think it’s good for one person to work on several plants simultaneously. One person can only concentrate on one thing, so part-time jobs should be reduced. 1. The nature of citizens He believes that citizens are people who participate in court trials and administrative rule. He believed it was particularly suitable for democratic forms of government. 2. The nature of the city-state: It is believed that when the political system of a city-state changes, the city-state is no longer the original city-state. 3. Good citizens and kind people The relationship between good citizens and good people or kind people. Discuss whether ordinary citizens should have the same virtues as good citizens. (Do your own thing well, abide by your duties, and keep everyone in their own right). He believes that virtues can be different and there are many kinds. Think that wise rulers are kind and wise people. It cannot be concluded that the virtues of a good citizen should be the same as the virtues of a good person. Rulers have special virtues, that is, wisdom. The personality of the governed provides real opinions. 4. The issue of citizenship of special classes Citizens---special classes, believe that their status === craftsmen should not become citizens, at least in the best overall sense. It is believed that the city-state does not regard all people as indispensable components. For example, the citizenship status of children and adults is different. Not fully granted full citizenship for reasons. In an aristocracy: citizenship is assigned on the basis of virtue and merit. In an oligarchy: official positions are distributed on the basis of property. The composition of "citizens" in different political systems is different. Some craftsmen can become them and some cannot. ---Individuals Whether the virtues of a good citizen and the virtues of a good person are the same thing depends on the city-state. Only politicians or people capable of holding power are the same. 5. Discuss again the political nature and governance methods of human beings---Discuss the types of political systems, what they are, and their differences. First, examine the purpose of the city-state, human nature, and the governance methods of human life. To reiterate the previous point, the government is responsible for certain institutional settings or arrangements for various official positions in the city-state, especially the highest official position. The polity is the government. It is believed that people's pursuit of a harmonious life is innate and inevitable. People will definitely gather together under the drive of common interests and enjoy the beautiful life they deserve in the community. Ways of governance: Different purposes of governance. It is believed that none of them aims at realizing the interests of all citizens. It is believed that any political system in which the rich are in power, no matter how many or small the number of people in the city-state is, is an oligarchy; the same is true for the poor. 6. Concepts of justice in oligarchic and civilian regimes p55 Concept of Justice & Impartiality These two are the most common in actual political life. Discuss how these two regimes view justice and the issues it raises. “Advocates of civilian government believe that justice means equality, but they believe that it is only suitable for those who should be equal, and not those who should not be equal. People who use oligarchy believe that justice means inequality, but believe that it is only suitable for those who should be equal. It does not apply to those who should be equal. ---This view is related to everyone's vital interests. It is difficult to make fair judgments when it comes to self-interest, and it is believed that people's concept of justice is pure. However, they are limited by certain factors intentionally or unintentionally. The reason why slaves and other animals cannot form a city-state is that the purpose of the city-state is not only to maintain people's lives and share wealth, but also to pursue a good life. --Special emphasis on pursuing a noble life for the public.

It is believed that a city-state must be a community composed of families and villages, with the goal of pursuing a good, perfect, and self-sufficient life. Justice means that those who have made relatively greater contributions to the city-state will enjoy greater privileges in the city-state. Prominent position. 7. The ownership of the highest power in the city-state and its problems. No matter who the highest power is given to, there will be drawbacks and problems, and even the law has problems. 8. A relatively good way to arrange the supreme power. I don’t think it is perfect, but there is one that is relatively good, that is, the rule of the majority. It is believed that the rule of the majority is better than the rule of the best few because the wisdom and feelings of the majority are better than those of the minority when gathered together. The reason why a virtuous person is virtuous is that he can combine the advantages and strengths of others into one person. collection. Laws are formulated based on the needs of the political system. It can be said that what kind of political system there is, there will be laws to support it. In other words, a correct political system will have just laws, and a degenerated political system will not have just laws. 9. Political justice and its difficult issues The good pursued by political science is justice, which is the common interest of all citizens. In everyone's mind, justice means some kind of equality. People who are too outstanding have qualities beyond ordinary people, and the law is ineffective against them. They themselves are the law. It is believed that this approach changes the political system for personal gain, and the correct political system serves the common interests. It is believed that an excellent political system cannot produce, but should comply with the will of nature, accept the rule of these people, and be their crescent-yielding subjects. 10. Types of Monarchy 11. On Monarchy and the Rule of Law Those gathered together come to wiser conclusions than the best men and the most complete laws. , groups are less susceptible to corruption. A person alone can easily be dominated by anger and passion that undermines his or her own judgment. Monarchy: Will face problems, successors, vulgarity, expansion of force with power. Paternalism: unreasonable, overriding, unnatural. The city-state should revise and supplement new laws as time goes by based on the new experiences of the city-state and citizens, so that the rule of law can keep pace with the times and maintain strong vitality and vitality. It is believed that the rule of law should be implemented as much as possible where the rule of law can be used. In places and times where the law cannot be taken into account, people must make decisions, not one person, but multiple people. 12. Applicable conditions for several types of government: Monarchy - if a city-state naturally has superior virtues and is suitable for the task of becoming the political leader of the entire city-state, adopt - Aristocracy - if there are naturally a large number of people in a city-state who are willing to accept those virtues Citizens who are excellent and suitable for political rule are suitable to be adopted - government and government - if there are naturally a large number of citizens in a city-state who are both qualified to rule and capable of being ruled, it is suitable to be adopted - if there exists in a certain place For a family or individual whose talents and virtues far exceed ordinary people, it is reasonable to use this family as the royal family or use this person as the monarch to form a city-state and rule other citizens. It is believed that the only reasonable and just approach is to sincerely regard such people as rulers, and their rule is not temporary or rotating, but unconditional. 13. The best people should rule in a correct political system, following the principle---let the best people rule (***Same Principle) In order to live a better life, the people will let competent people rule, The rest take over the rule. The education and training required to create the best people, virtuous people, should be exactly the same as those needed for politicians or kings. (The best political system, how to realize it) 1. The best political system---I previously studied what is the life of the most admirable person. The happiness of every man is directly proportional to his virtue and practical wisdom, and his ability to act with knowledge of both. The best and happiest life for an individual or a city-state community is a life with enough virtues to enable virtuous behavior. 2. Personal happiness and the happiness of the city-state The best political system--enables people to have the kindest behavior and the happiest life. Some people think that engaging in politics means being ruled by a dictatorship and tyrant. 3. Evaluation of the two views of happiness. Some people think: The life of a politician--happiness-power-goodness-happiness The life of a politician-unhappiness-freedom-giving orders to others is not noble. 4. Conditions of an ideal city-state : Citizens, political system, territory---the size of the previous and subsequent city-states depends on the number of citizens and the strength of the city-state. Law is a certain kind of order. Good law must be good order, and it is difficult for an overly dense population to saturate good order. A city-state with proportions in size must be the most beautiful city-state. The best population connection for a city-state is one where people can live comfortably and where the ruler can easily inspect and understand them. The territory should be easy to inspect and conducive to defense. Naval power must be possessed 5. The nature of the citizens of an ideal city-state It is said that people in cold areas and people of all ethnic groups in Europe have strong vitality, but lack of ideas and technology, and are unorganized. It is said that Asia is smart and technologically advanced, but spiritually inert and prone to slavery. The Greeks were full of vitality and thoughtful, and gave birth to an excellent political system. 6. The components and necessary conditions of an ideal city-state. The components may also be food, territory, property, and slaves. 7. The status and role of each class in an ideal city-state. The best political system can achieve the greatest happiness. There is no happiness without virtue. In a city-state that implements an ideal political system, citizens will not live in the sacred lake of craftsmen and merchants, because such a life is low and low. Not conducive to the acquisition of virtue.

And they should not be farmers, because the formation of virtue and political behavior or activities require leisure that most farmers cannot have. It is believed that the most important components of the city-state are armed personnel and deliberators, who play an important role in the adjudication of public affairs and lawsuits. Their work focuses on different things. A good political system allows people to perform both functions, but also does not perform the above functions at the same time. Those who perform this function should own property, and those who perform it are citizens, who are men of property, just as farming must belong to slaves or savage country bumpkins. Note: It was too much to protect the interests of his class. Although he was in the era of the decline of slavery, he believed that the ideal city-state should select outstanding people as he said, but he ignored the interests of other large parts of the society. Who says slaves are born slaves. Farmers will be angry if you call them country bumpkins! 8. The virtues of citizens of an ideal city-state The essence of happiness is the perfect application and realization of virtues. For a city-state to become kind, the citizens participating in the city-state's government must be kind. People become kind and wise: nature - person, body, soul, habits - edification. Good and bad reason---use to achieve good 9. The rulers of the ideal government and the virtuous citizens of the ruled should be diligent and good at war, seek peace and leisure, complete various necessary and useful affairs, and moreover, they should not regard practicality as the A noble act of purpose. Children and those who deserve education should learn these truths. War training should not be aimed at benefiting those who should not be enslaved. The first priority should be to ensure that oneself is not enslaved. When seeking a leadership position, one should consider the interests of the governed and should not seek tyranny over everyone. Diuzhen practiced tyranny over those who deserved to be enslaved. 10. Re-discuss the virtues of citizens in an ideal city-state. To obtain the price of leisure: temperance, courage and perseverance. “Slaves have no leisure.” Those who cannot bravely face danger will inevitably become slaves of the invaders. What is a slave? Courage and perseverance are suitable for work, while philosophical wisdom is suitable for leisure. Both leisure and work must be temperate and just. Can you summarize what "virtue" includes in this book? Justice - Temperance - Courage - Perseverance - Kindness - Reason What does he mean by justice? Slaves are a special category, is there justice for them? What are external goods? 11. Marriage and childbirth of citizens of an ideal city-state. Marriage age. It is suitable for women to get married around 18 years old and for men around 37 years old. 12. The upbringing of children in an ideal city-state. Stay away from evil 1. The legislators of every city-state should be most concerned about the education of young people. The development of all abilities and the use of technology require prior training and adaptation, and the same goes for the use of virtue. It is believed that the purpose of the city-state is unique and the same education should be implemented for all citizens. We are all part of the city-state, and the city-state has the same responsibilities. 2. The content of education for young people in the city-state should be appropriate. Children should learn necessary and practical things. It is believed that people's time learning should be based on its teleology. When this kind of skill learning is based on one's own needs or for the purpose of cultivating virtue, it can be regarded as something that free people can learn. 3. Music education for young people in city-states. It is believed that people today practice music for entertainment, and the original purpose is to cultivate nobility. The only source of life in leisure time. The happiness of the kindest people is the purest, and it comes from the noblest things. Therefore, it is obvious that the city-state should set up an educational course about leisure. Therefore, the predecessor included music in music education. He did not do it for practicality or identification. Art is not used to contribute to health and strength like sports. The city-state should carry out an education that is neither based on practicality nor necessity, but for free and noble moral sentiments (music). 4. The content of education must be comprehensive. Bravery does not mean cruelty, it is often accompanied by a docile, lion-like character. The Spartans had superhuman qualities of fearlessness, but lagged behind in sports and warfare. There are things to do for every age group. Children, 18. The fatigue of the body hinders the mind, and the fatigue of the mind hinders the body. 5. Let’s talk about the music education of young people in city-states. Why can’t we easily gain pleasure and appreciation from listening to other people’s performances like the Spartans treated music? The Spartans did not learn rhythm, but they had a good taste in music and could judge whether any melody was appropriate or not. It is believed that the cultivation of the soul includes not only nobility but also pleasure, and a happy soul is composed of nobility and pleasure. Therefore, everyone thinks that music is the most pleasant thing. Music can often temporarily relieve all kinds of burdens in the heart, and the pleasure it brings directly expresses people's feelings, which has many benefits. People can not only get the same happy feelings from music, but also be aware of the edifying effect of music on temperament and soul. For citizens of a city-state, there is nothing more important than cultivating correct judgment and learning to seek happiness in good sentiments and noble behaviors. People who are personally involved in music activities have completely different feelings from people who are not involved in music activities. It is believed that young people’s music learning should be limited to the level at which they can appreciate elegant melody and rhythm. How Music Cultivates Human Morality Believes that we should eliminate musical education that requires specialized skills on instruments and clock-turning skills—skills that can be acquired through training for the purpose of participating in competitions.

Because the purpose of the contestants' performance is not for their own virtue, but to please the audience and pursue a vulgar happiness. Emotional melodies should be used in music education. First of all it is important that we avoid what I consider to be two equally unhelpful ways of parsing. The first is that you love the commentators who are everywhere today, the various Neo-Aristotelians. They simply distract us from the glaring, albeit unflattering, aspects of Aristotle's thinking and simply assume that he never seemed to say or mean such a thing. We should avoid this temptation. . In many ways, he might have been easier to understand after being sprayed and disinfected. Aristotle may become more politically correct for modern readers. Avoid the second, equally powerful temptation to reject Aristotle because his views are unacceptable to our own time.